Consensus vs Conflict Theories
Consensus vs Conflict Theories
The most fundamental division in sociological theory is between perspectives that see society as based on consensus (agreement and shared values) and those that see it as based on conflict (inequality and power struggles). This distinction shapes every topic on the AQA specification.
Consensus Theories
Consensus theories argue that society is held together by shared norms, values, and beliefs — a value consensus. Social institutions exist because they perform functions that benefit society as a whole.
Functionalism
Functionalism is the dominant consensus theory. It uses an organic analogy — society is like a biological organism, with each part (institution) performing a function that contributes to the survival of the whole.
Durkheim (1893) — The Division of Labour:
- In pre-industrial societies, solidarity was mechanical — based on similarity (everyone shared the same beliefs, values, and lifestyle)
- In modern industrial societies, solidarity is organic — based on interdependence (people perform specialised roles and depend on each other)
- The collective conscience (shared beliefs and values) is weaker in modern societies but still essential for social order
- When the collective conscience breaks down, anomie (normlessness) results — leading to deviance and social breakdown
Parsons (1951) — The Social System:
- Society is a system of interconnected parts, each performing essential functions
- Four functional prerequisites (AGIL):
| Function | System | Institution |
|---|---|---|
| Adaptation | Economic | The economy — producing goods and services |
| Goal attainment | Political | The government — setting and achieving collective goals |
| Integration | Social | Religion, law, media — maintaining solidarity |
| Latency (pattern maintenance) | Cultural | Family, education — socialisation and tension management |
- Socialisation is the key mechanism: individuals internalise society's norms and values through primary (family) and secondary (education, media, religion) socialisation
- Social control reinforces socialisation: positive sanctions (rewards) encourage conformity; negative sanctions (punishment) discourage deviance
- Society tends towards equilibrium — when one part changes, others adjust to maintain stability
Merton (1949) — Modified Functionalism:
- Criticised Parsons for assuming all institutions are functional, universal, and indispensable
- Distinguished between manifest functions (intended, recognised) and latent functions (unintended, unrecognised)
- Example: the manifest function of education is learning; a latent function is providing childcare while parents work
- Introduced the concept of dysfunction — some institutions or practices can be harmful to society (e.g., religion can cause conflict as well as solidarity)
Evaluation of Functionalism
| Strength | Weakness |
|---|---|
| Provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how society works as a system | Too deterministic: individuals are "cultural dopes" (Garfinkel) passively shaped by socialisation — ignores agency, resistance, and choice |
| Explains the persistence of institutions — they survive because they perform functions | Ignores power and inequality: whose "consensus" is it? Marxists argue that shared values serve the ruling class, not everyone |
| Highlights the importance of socialisation and shared values for social order | Cannot explain conflict and change: if society naturally tends towards equilibrium, why do revolutions, protests, and rapid social change occur? |
| Merton's refinements (dysfunction, latent function) add nuance | Teleological reasoning: assumes that because an institution exists, it must be functional — this is circular logic (it exists because it's needed; we know it's needed because it exists) |
| Postmodernists: society is too diverse for a single value consensus — there are multiple, competing cultures and identities |
Conflict Theories
Conflict theories argue that society is characterised by inequality, exploitation, and power struggles between different social groups.
Marxism
Karl Marx (1818–1883) argued that the economic base (mode of production) determines the structure of society.
Key Concepts:
| Concept | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Infrastructure/base | The economic foundation: forces of production (technology, raw materials) + relations of production (class relationships) |
| Superstructure | Everything built on the base: law, politics, religion, education, media, family — all shaped by and serving the base |
| Bourgeoisie | The ruling class who own the means of production |
| Proletariat | The working class who sell their labour for wages |
| Surplus value | The difference between what workers produce and what they are paid — the source of profit and exploitation |
| Ideology | Ideas, beliefs, and values that legitimise capitalism and disguise exploitation (e.g., meritocracy, religion) |
| False consciousness | The working class's failure to recognise their exploitation — maintained by ideology |
| Class consciousness | The working class becoming aware of their true interests — the precondition for revolution |
Historical Materialism:
- Society progresses through stages driven by class conflict: feudalism → capitalism → socialism → communism
- Each stage contains contradictions (internal tensions) that eventually produce revolution:
- Capitalism's key contradiction: production is social (workers cooperate) but ownership is private (capitalists take the profits)
- Over time, the polarisation of classes (rich get richer, poor get poorer) creates the conditions for revolution
- The proletariat will develop class consciousness, overthrow capitalism, and establish a communist society — a classless, equal society with no private ownership of the means of production
Gramsci (1891–1937) — Hegemony:
- Neo-Marxist who argued that the ruling class maintains power not only through economic control but through ideological hegemony — dominance over ideas, values, and culture
- The working class are persuaded to consent to their own exploitation because ruling-class ideas (meritocracy, nationalism, consumerism) become "common sense"
- However, hegemony is never total — it must be constantly renegotiated, and counter-hegemonic ideas can challenge it
- Organic intellectuals: working-class thinkers who can develop alternative ideas and lead resistance
Althusser (1971) — Structural Marxism:
- Distinguished between two mechanisms of ruling-class control:
- Repressive State Apparatus (RSA): police, army, courts — maintain control through force
- Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs): education, media, religion, family — maintain control through ideology
- The ISAs are more effective because they work through consent rather than force — people voluntarily accept beliefs that serve capitalism
Evaluation of Marxism
| Strength | Weakness |
|---|---|
| Highlights the central role of economic inequality and class conflict | Too economically deterministic: reduces everything to class — ignores gender (feminism), ethnicity, age, and other forms of inequality |
| Exposes how institutions (law, education, media) can serve ruling-class interests | Class polarisation has not occurred as Marx predicted — the middle class has grown rather than disappeared |
| Has inspired real social movements and revolutions | Communist societies (USSR, China) did not achieve classless equality — they produced new forms of inequality and oppression |
| Gramsci's hegemony concept explains consent without crude determinism | Weber: status and power are independent sources of inequality, not reducible to class |
| Postmodernists: class is no longer the primary source of identity — identity is multiple, fluid, and chosen | |
| Functionalists: ignores the positive functions of social institutions; society IS based on value consensus, not just coercion |
Feminism
Feminism is a conflict theory focused on gender inequality and patriarchy — male domination of society.
Liberal Feminism:
- Gender inequality results from sexist attitudes and discriminatory laws, not from the fundamental structure of society
- Gradual reform (equal pay legislation, anti-discrimination laws, equal access to education) can achieve equality
- Evaluation: criticised by radical feminists for failing to address the deep structural roots of patriarchy
Radical Feminism:
- Patriarchy is the fundamental form of inequality — all societies are male-dominated
- Firestone (1970): patriarchy is rooted in women's biology (childbearing makes women dependent on men) — women must be freed from biological reproduction (through reproductive technology)
- Millett (1970): patriarchy operates through every institution — family, work, state, religion, media, culture
- The personal is political: domestic violence, housework, sexuality, and childrearing are all sites of power struggle
- Evaluation: criticised for treating all men as oppressors and all women as victims; ignores class and ethnic differences among women
Marxist Feminism:
- Combines class and gender analysis: women's oppression serves capitalism as well as men
- Barrett (1980): women perform unpaid domestic labour that reproduces the labour force (raising the next generation of workers) and absorbs male workers' frustration (the "warm bath" function), preventing revolution
- Women form a reserve army of labour — drawn into the workforce when needed (wartime) and pushed back to the home when not
- Evaluation: prioritises class over gender — radical feminists argue patriarchy existed before capitalism
Intersectional Feminism:
- Crenshaw (1989): women's experiences vary by race, class, sexuality, and disability — these forms of inequality intersect and cannot be separated
- A Black working-class woman experiences a fundamentally different form of oppression than a White middle-class woman
- Challenges all previous feminisms for treating women as a homogeneous group
Comparing Consensus and Conflict
| Feature | Consensus (Functionalism) | Conflict (Marxism) | Conflict (Feminism) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Society based on | Shared values, cooperation | Class exploitation | Patriarchal domination |
| Social order through | Socialisation, value consensus | Ideology, coercion | Patriarchal control |
| Social institutions | Benefit everyone | Serve the ruling class | Serve men |
| Social change | Gradual, evolutionary | Revolutionary class struggle | Feminist struggle |
| Key thinker | Durkheim, Parsons | Marx, Gramsci | Firestone, Millett |
Exam Tip
For the Theory and Methods paper (Paper 3), you MUST be able to compare consensus and conflict theories in detail. The best answers recognise that both approaches have internal disagreements (Merton vs Parsons; Gramsci vs Althusser; liberal vs radical feminism). Show that you understand the nuances within each tradition, not just the broad brushstrokes. Use specific studies from substantive topics (education, crime, religion) to illustrate theoretical points — this demonstrates AO2 application.