The Later Years of Elizabeth's Reign

The Later Years of Elizabeth's Reign

The final decade of Elizabeth's reign (the 1590s to 1603) was marked by growing problems: economic hardship, political tensions, military challenges, and the aging of the Queen herself. The golden image of the Elizabethan era conceals a more troubled reality in its closing years.

Economic Problems

The 1590s were difficult years for England:

• Harvest failures — A series of bad harvests in 1594, 1595, 1596, and 1597 caused food prices to rise sharply. In some areas, people starved.
• Plague outbreaks — London suffered recurrent epidemics; theatres were closed for long periods.
• Cost of war — The ongoing war with Spain (from 1585) drained the treasury. Elizabeth spent over £4 million on the war — an enormous sum. She had to sell Crown lands and call frequent Parliaments to grant taxation.
• Taxation — Parliamentary subsidies (taxes) became more frequent and heavier, causing resentment. Between 1593 and 1601, Parliament granted taxes almost every session.
• Inflation — Prices continued to rise while wages stagnated, squeezing the living standards of ordinary people.

The Essex Rebellion (1601)

The most dramatic political crisis of Elizabeth's later years was the rebellion of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex:

• Essex was a charismatic young nobleman and a favourite of Elizabeth. He was ambitious, hot-headed, and impatient.
• In 1599, Elizabeth sent Essex to Ireland to suppress Tyrone's Rebellion (a major Catholic Irish uprising led by Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone). Essex was given command of 17,000 troops — the largest army sent to Ireland.
• Essex failed — he made an unauthorised truce with Tyrone and returned to London without permission, bursting into Elizabeth's bedchamber (seeing her without her wig and make-up — a serious breach of protocol).
• Essex was stripped of his offices and placed under house arrest. His main source of income — a monopoly on sweet wines — was not renewed.
• Desperate and humiliated, on 8 February 1601, Essex marched into London with about 300 supporters, attempting to seize the Queen and force her to remove his rivals from the Council.
• The rebellion was a complete failure — Londoners did not rally to his cause. Essex was arrested, tried for treason, and executed on 25 February 1601.

The Monopolies Crisis (1601)

• Elizabeth had granted monopolies (exclusive rights to sell certain goods) to her courtiers as rewards. By the 1590s, monopolies covered everyday items: salt, starch, iron, playing cards, vinegar.
• Monopolies raised prices and angered the public. In the Parliament of 1601, MPs launched a furious attack on monopolies.
• Elizabeth defused the crisis with her "Golden Speech" (30 November 1601), in which she promised to reform monopolies and declared: "Though you have had and may have many mightier and wiser princes sitting in this seat, yet you never had nor shall have any that will love you better."
• The speech was a masterpiece of political management — Elizabeth conceded on the issue while reinforcing her personal authority and connection with her subjects.

Ireland: Tyrone's Rebellion (1594-1603)

• Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, led the most serious Irish rebellion of Elizabeth's reign.
• O'Neill was a skilled military leader who united many Irish chiefs. He defeated English forces at the Battle of Yellow Ford (1598) — England's worst military defeat in Ireland.
• After Essex's failure, Elizabeth sent Lord Mountjoy (1600-03), who systematically crushed the rebellion using scorched-earth tactics.
• Tyrone received help from Spain — a Spanish force of 4,000 landed at Kinsale in 1601 but was defeated by Mountjoy at the Battle of Kinsale (December 1601).
• Tyrone surrendered in March 1603 — just days after Elizabeth's death.
• The Nine Years' War cost over £2 million and further strained English resources.

Elizabeth's Death

• Elizabeth died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, aged 69.
• She never named a successor publicly, but on her deathbed she reportedly indicated James VI of Scotland (Mary Queen of Scots' son), who became James I of England, uniting the English and Scottish crowns.
• The Tudor dynasty ended with Elizabeth's death.

Key Exam Points

• The later years show that Elizabeth's reign was not all golden — there were serious economic, military, and political problems.
• The Essex Rebellion illustrates the dangers of court faction and the importance of patronage.
• The Golden Speech demonstrates Elizabeth's political skill even in old age.
• The Irish wars remind us that England's relationship with Ireland was a persistent and costly problem.