The Black Death, 1348
The Black Death, 1348
The Black Death arrived in England in June 1348 and swept across the country over the following two years. It was the most devastating epidemic in English history, killing between one-third and one-half of the population — an estimated 1.5 to 2 million people out of a population of about 4-5 million.
What Was the Black Death?
The Black Death was almost certainly bubonic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (though this was not known at the time). It was spread by fleas living on black rats:
- The bacteria lived in the stomachs of fleas.
- When the rat host died, fleas jumped to human hosts and bit them, transmitting the infection.
- There was also a pneumonic form (spread through coughing and sneezing) which was even more deadly.
Symptoms
- Swollen lymph nodes ("buboes") in the groin, armpits, and neck — hence "bubonic" plague
- High fever, headache, and vomiting
- Black spots on the skin (subcutaneous bleeding)
- Death usually followed within 3-5 days — the mortality rate was 60-70% for bubonic plague, and nearly 100% for pneumonic plague
What Did People Think Caused It?
Medieval people had no understanding of germs or bacteria. Their explanations included:
- God's punishment for sin — the most widespread explanation. People responded with prayer, fasting, and religious processions.
- Miasma (bad air) — many believed foul-smelling air carried the disease.
- Astrology — the University of Paris (1348) blamed a conjunction of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
- Jews — horrific scapegoating led to attacks on Jewish communities across Europe (less so in England, where Jews had been expelled in 1290).
- Flagellants — groups of people who whipped themselves publicly, believing self-punishment would persuade God to end the plague.
Attempted Treatments and Responses
| Method | Detail |
|---|---|
| Prayer and repentance | Churches held services; processions were organised |
| Bloodletting and purging | Based on the Theory of the Four Humours |
| Carrying posies of flowers | To ward off miasma (bad air) |
| Lancing buboes | Cutting open the swellings to drain the pus |
| Quarantine | Some towns attempted to isolate the sick; Gloucester tried to close its borders |
| Burning aromatic herbs | Juniper, myrrh, and other substances were burned to "purify" the air |
| Theriac | A medicinal paste (treacle) containing dozens of ingredients |
None of these treatments were effective because the actual cause (bacteria spread by fleas) was unknown.
Impact of the Black Death
Short-term
- Massive death toll — entire villages were wiped out; bodies piled up faster than they could be buried.
- Labour shortage — so many workers died that those who survived could demand higher wages.
- Economic disruption — farms were abandoned; trade collapsed.
- Social upheaval — the normal order of society was disrupted. Some people turned to extreme religion; others abandoned morality.
Long-term
- The Statute of Labourers (1351) — the government tried to freeze wages at pre-plague levels. This caused deep resentment among peasants and contributed to the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.
- Decline of feudalism — The labour shortage gave peasants more bargaining power and greater freedom.
- Recurring outbreaks — Plague returned regularly (1361, 1369, 1375, and many later outbreaks including the Great Plague of 1665).
- No medical breakthrough — The Black Death did NOT lead to improved medical understanding. People continued to rely on the same theories (humours, miasma, God) because they had no alternative framework.
Key Exam Points
- The Black Death is a case study showing the limitations of medieval medicine — people could not prevent, explain, or treat the disease effectively.
- Understand the link between beliefs about causes and the treatments attempted.
- Be prepared to discuss both short-term and long-term consequences.
- The Black Death is often used in comparison questions: compare medieval responses with later epidemics (Great Plague 1665, cholera 1854).