Ethical Issues and Data Analysis
Ethics are the moral guidelines psychologists must follow to protect participants. Data analysis is how researchers make sense of their results.
Ethical Issues in Psychology
The British Psychological Society (BPS) sets out ethical guidelines that all UK psychologists must follow:
| Ethical Issue | What It Means | How It Is Addressed |
|---|
| Informed consent | Participants must be told what the study involves and agree to take part | Provide a clear information sheet and consent form before the study; for children under 16, a parent/guardian must consent |
| Deception | Participants should not be misled about the nature of the study | Only acceptable when the study cannot work otherwise; must be followed by a full debrief revealing the true purpose |
| Right to withdraw | Participants must be free to leave the study at any time without penalty | Remind participants at the start and during the study; their data should be destroyed if they withdraw |
| Protection from harm | Participants should not experience physical or psychological harm beyond what they would encounter in normal life | Risk assessment before the study; monitor participants during; provide support or counselling after if needed |
| Confidentiality | Personal information and data must be kept private and anonymous | Use participant numbers instead of names; store data securely; do not publish identifiable information |
| Privacy | Participants' personal lives should not be intruded upon | Only observe in public places; do not record without consent |
| Debriefing | After the study, participants are told the true purpose and given the chance to ask questions or withdraw their data | Conducted as soon as the study is complete; especially important when deception has been used |
Dealing with Ethical Issues
- Ethics committees review research proposals before studies are conducted
- Researchers must follow the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct
- Cost-benefit analysis — the potential benefits of the research (e.g. advancing understanding of mental health) are weighed against the potential harm to participants
- Special care must be taken with vulnerable groups (children, people with mental health conditions, prisoners)
Data Analysis
Types of Data
| Quantitative Data | Qualitative Data |
|---|
| Numerical — numbers, statistics, measurements | Descriptive — words, opinions, feelings, observations |
| Collected through: experiments, closed questionnaires, structured observations | Collected through: interviews, open questionnaires, case studies |
| Easy to analyse statistically and compare | Rich and detailed — provides depth and insight |
| May lack depth — numbers do not explain why | Harder to analyse and compare; subjective interpretation |
| Objective — less influenced by researcher bias | Subjective — researcher interpretation may introduce bias |
Measures of Central Tendency
These summarise a set of data with a single typical value:
| Measure | How to Calculate | Strengths | Weaknesses |
|---|
| Mean | Add all values, divide by the number of values | Uses all data; most sensitive measure | Distorted by extreme values (outliers) |
| Median | Arrange values in order; the middle value | Not affected by extreme values | Does not use all data; less sensitive |
| Mode | The most frequently occurring value | Shows the most common result; works with non-numerical data | There may be no mode, or several modes; ignores most data |
Measures of Dispersion
These show how spread out the data is:
| Measure | How to Calculate | What It Shows |
|---|
| Range | Highest value - Lowest value (+1 in some conventions) | Quick measure of spread; but affected by outliers |
| Standard deviation | Complex calculation — measures the average distance of each score from the mean | More precise measure of spread; uses all data; not distorted by outliers |
Displaying Data
| Method | Used For |
|---|
| Bar chart | Comparing categories (discrete data) — bars do not touch |
| Histogram | Showing continuous data — bars touch; area represents frequency |
| Line graph | Showing trends over time or continuous data |
| Scatter diagram | Showing the relationship (correlation) between two variables |
| Pie chart | Showing proportions of a whole |
| Table | Presenting raw or summarised data clearly |
Exam Tips
- Know all the ethical issues and how each is addressed — this comes up every year
- Be able to calculate the mean, median, mode and range from given data
- Know the difference between quantitative and qualitative data
- For AO3: when evaluating a study, always consider the ethical issues involved
- Common question: "Explain one ethical issue with this study and how it could be dealt with" — be specific to the scenario given
- Bar charts have gaps between bars; histograms do not — know the difference