Non-Verbal Communication
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication (NVC) is communication without words — through body language, facial expressions, gestures, posture, eye contact and tone of voice. Research shows that NVC carries a significant proportion of the meaning in any interaction.
Types of Non-Verbal Communication
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Facial expressions | Movements of facial muscles that convey emotion | Smiling (happiness), frowning (disapproval), raised eyebrows (surprise) |
| Body language (posture) | How we hold and position our bodies | Open posture (arms uncrossed = welcoming), closed posture (arms crossed = defensive), leaning forward (interest) |
| Gestures | Movements of hands, arms or head to convey meaning | Thumbs up (approval), waving (greeting), nodding (agreement), shaking head (disagreement) |
| Eye contact | Looking at someone's eyes during interaction | Maintained eye contact (confidence, interest), avoiding eye contact (shyness, dishonesty, discomfort) |
| Personal space (proxemics) | The physical distance between people during interaction | Intimate (0-45cm), personal (45cm-1.2m), social (1.2-3.6m), public (3.6m+) |
| Touch (haptics) | Physical contact during communication | Handshake (greeting), pat on the back (encouragement), hug (comfort) |
| Tone of voice (paralinguistics) | How something is said, not what is said — volume, pitch, speed, emphasis | Shouting (anger), whispering (secrecy), slow speech (sadness), rising pitch (question) |
Functions of NVC
- Expressing emotions — facial expressions often convey feelings more accurately than words
- Regulating interaction — eye contact and gestures signal when it is someone's turn to speak
- Replacing speech — a nod or a wave can communicate without words
- Complementing speech — gestures and tone reinforce what is being said
- Contradicting speech — when NVC conflicts with words (e.g. saying "I'm fine" while crying), people tend to believe the NVC
Are Facial Expressions Universal?
Key study — Ekman (1970):
- Showed photographs of facial expressions to people from different cultures (USA, Japan, Brazil, Argentina, and the Fore tribe of Papua New Guinea, who had minimal contact with Western culture)
- Six basic emotions were recognised across all cultures: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise
- Conclusion: the expression and recognition of basic emotions through facial expressions is innate and universal — not learned
- This supports a biological/evolutionary explanation — facial expressions evolved because they aided communication and survival
Criticism:
- Ekman's methodology has been questioned — forced-choice format (participants chose from a limited set of labels) may have inflated agreement
- More recent research suggests that while some expressions are universal, their interpretation can vary across cultures
- Display rules — cultures have different rules about when and how to express emotions (e.g. Japanese culture emphasises emotional restraint in public)
Personal Space and Culture
- Edward Hall (1966) identified four zones of personal space (listed above)
- The "comfortable" distance varies by culture: people from Middle Eastern, Latin American and Southern European cultures tend to stand closer during conversation; people from Northern European and East Asian cultures tend to stand further apart
- Violating personal space causes discomfort — we feel anxious or threatened when someone stands too close
- Personal space also varies by relationship: we allow close friends and family into our intimate zone but keep strangers at social distance
Exam Tips
- Know the types of NVC — facial expressions, body language, gestures, eye contact, personal space, touch, tone of voice
- Use Ekman (1970) as key evidence for universality of facial expressions
- For AO3: consider cultural variations in NVC — display rules, personal space norms
- Common question: "Explain one example of non-verbal communication" — give a detailed, specific example
- For evaluation: Is NVC more powerful than verbal communication? Mehrabian (1971) suggested only 7% of meaning comes from words (though this finding is often oversimplified)