Gender Inequality
Gender Inequality and Stratification
Gender is a key dimension of social stratification alongside class and ethnicity. Despite significant progress, gender inequality persists in pay, employment, domestic labour, politics and everyday life.
Key Concepts
| Concept | Definition |
|---|---|
| Sex | Biological differences between males and females (chromosomes, hormones, reproductive organs) |
| Gender | The social and cultural expectations attached to being male or female — learned through socialisation, not biology |
| Patriarchy | A system of male dominance in which men hold more power, privilege and status than women across all social institutions |
| Gender roles | The behaviours, attitudes and activities that society considers appropriate for men and women |
| Glass ceiling | An invisible barrier that prevents women from reaching the highest positions in organisations, despite having the qualifications and ability |
| Gender pay gap | The difference between average male and average female earnings; currently around 14% (median, full-time) in the UK |
Is Gender Socially Constructed?
The Sociological View — Gender is Learned
Oakley (1974) argued that gender roles are socially constructed through four processes of socialisation:
| Process | Example |
|---|---|
| Manipulation | Parents encourage or discourage behaviour based on gender (praising girls for being pretty, boys for being strong) |
| Canalisation | Directing children to gender-typed toys, activities and interests (dolls for girls, cars for boys) |
| Verbal appellations | Using gender-specific language ("good girl", "big brave boy") |
| Different activities | Encouraging different household tasks (girls help cook, boys help with DIY) |
Evidence for social construction:
- Mead (1935) — studied three tribes in New Guinea and found that gender roles varied dramatically between them, proving they are not biologically fixed
- Fausto-Sterling (2000) — biological sex itself is more complex than a simple male/female binary
The Biological View
Some argue gender differences are partly biological:
- Hormones (testosterone linked to aggression)
- Brain differences (debated)
- Evolutionary psychology — men and women evolved different survival strategies
Evaluation: biological arguments tend to be deterministic and cannot explain why gender roles vary between cultures and change over time. Most sociologists emphasise that while sex is biological, gender is overwhelmingly social.
Gender Inequality in Employment
The Gender Pay Gap
- Women in the UK earn approximately 14% less than men (median full-time hourly pay, ONS)
- The gap is wider for older women, part-time workers, and in certain industries (finance, technology)
- Equal Pay Act 1970 made it illegal to pay men and women differently for the same work — but the gap persists
Why Does the Pay Gap Exist?
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Occupational segregation | Women are concentrated in lower-paid sectors (care, retail, education); men dominate higher-paid fields (finance, engineering, technology) |
| Vertical segregation | Women are under-represented at senior levels — the glass ceiling |
| Part-time work | Women are far more likely to work part-time (often due to childcare), which carries lower hourly pay and fewer promotion prospects |
| Motherhood penalty | Women's careers are interrupted by maternity leave and childcare; employers may discriminate against mothers (consciously or unconsciously) |
| Socialisation | Women may be less likely to negotiate pay rises or apply for senior roles due to gendered expectations about assertiveness |
| Discrimination | Despite legal protections, unconscious bias and direct discrimination persist |
The Glass Ceiling
- Women make up around 50% of the workforce but only about 8% of FTSE 100 CEOs
- Only about 35% of MPs are women (2024); the UK has had only 3 female Prime Ministers
- Crompton and Sanderson (1990) — occupational segregation and the glass ceiling are maintained by patriarchal structures within organisations
- Greer (1999) — "the glass ceiling is so thick that you can't even see through it"
Gender Inequality in the Family
As covered in the conjugal roles topic:
- Women still perform the majority of housework and childcare — the dual burden (paid work + domestic work)
- Duncombe and Marsden (1995) — women also perform a triple shift (paid work + domestic work + emotion work)
- Men have increased their domestic contribution but the gap remains substantial
- Decision-making and financial control still tend to favour men (Edgell, 1980)
- Domestic violence disproportionately affects women — 1 in 4 women experience it in their lifetime
Gender Inequality in Education
- Girls now outperform boys at every level of education
- However, subject choice remains gendered — girls are under-represented in Physics, Computing and Engineering; boys in English, Languages and Psychology
- Sharpe (1994) — girls' ambitions shifted from domestic roles to careers and independence
- The feminisation of education debate — some argue schools reward "feminine" qualities (organisation, neatness, verbal skills), disadvantaging boys
Feminist Perspectives on Gender Inequality
| Perspective | Key argument | Evaluation |
|---|---|---|
| Liberal feminism | Inequality is caused by outdated laws and sexist attitudes; progress is possible through legal reform and education | Has achieved real change (Equal Pay Act, Sex Discrimination Act); but legal equality has not delivered actual equality |
| Marxist feminism | Women's oppression benefits capitalism — unpaid domestic labour reproduces the workforce for free; Benston (1969) | Links gender to class; but ignores patriarchy in non-capitalist societies |
| Radical feminism | Patriarchy is the fundamental system of oppression; it is embedded in all institutions; men benefit from controlling women | Highlights domestic violence and sexual assault; but accused of being anti-men and ignoring class/ethnicity |
| Intersectional feminism | Gender inequality intersects with class, ethnicity and sexuality; Crenshaw (1989) — Black women face unique, overlapping disadvantages | Most nuanced; avoids treating "women" as a single category |
| Postfeminism | Gender equality has largely been achieved; women now have choice and agency; feminism is no longer needed | Ignores the gender pay gap, violence against women and global gender inequality; premature |
Has Gender Inequality Decreased?
Evidence of progress:
- Legal equality (Equal Pay Act, Equality Act 2010)
- Girls outperform boys in education
- More women in professional careers, politics and public life
- Changing attitudes — most people support gender equality
- #MeToo movement raised awareness of sexual harassment
Evidence that inequality persists:
- The gender pay gap remains at around 14%
- Women do the majority of unpaid domestic and caring work
- Under-representation at the top (CEOs, partners, professors, MPs)
- Violence against women (domestic abuse, sexual assault, femicide — 2 women killed per week in the UK)
- Online misogyny and harassment
- Global inequality — in many countries, women lack basic rights
Exam Technique
Always define sex vs gender early in your answer. Use at least two feminist perspectives and name sociologists. For a "how far has inequality decreased" question, present evidence of both progress and persistence, and reach a balanced conclusion. Link gender to other forms of inequality (class and ethnicity) for top marks.