Social Mobility and Life Chances
Social Mobility and Life Chances
Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between positions in the social class hierarchy. Life chances are the opportunities and outcomes available to people in areas like health, education, income, housing and employment. This final topic draws together everything you have studied about stratification.
Types of Social Mobility
| Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Upward mobility | Moving to a higher class position | A working-class child becomes a doctor |
| Downward mobility | Moving to a lower class position | A middle-class person loses their business and takes a low-paid job |
| Intragenerational mobility | Movement within a person's own lifetime (career mobility) | Starting as a shop assistant and becoming a regional manager |
| Intergenerational mobility | Movement between generations — comparing a person's class position with their parents' | A miner's daughter becomes a solicitor |
| Absolute mobility | The total amount of movement between classes, regardless of direction | Has increased because the occupational structure changed (more professional jobs) |
| Relative mobility | The chances of mobility for people from different class backgrounds compared to each other | Has barely changed — middle-class children still have far better chances of reaching the top than working-class children |
Key Studies on Social Mobility
Goldthorpe (1980) — The Oxford Mobility Study
- Studied 10,000 men born between 1913 and 1952
- Found that there had been considerable absolute upward mobility — many working-class men moved into middle-class jobs
- But this was mainly due to changes in the occupational structure (more professional and managerial jobs created as manufacturing declined) — not because society had become more open or meritocratic
- Relative mobility had changed very little — the "1:2:4 rule": a child from the service class (top) was 4 times more likely to end up in the service class than a working-class child, and twice as likely as an intermediate-class child
- Conclusion: the class structure had room at the top because it was expanding, not because barriers had fallen
Savage et al. (2013) — The Great British Class Survey
Identified 7 social classes in modern Britain:
1. Elite — high economic, cultural and social capital
2. Established middle class
3. Technical middle class
4. New affluent workers
5. Traditional working class
6. Emergent service workers
7. Precariat — low levels of all three capitals; insecure employment, low income
This research showed that class is about more than just occupation — it includes cultural capital (knowledge, tastes, qualifications) and social capital (networks, connections, who you know).
The Social Mobility Commission (2019-present)
The government's Social Mobility Commission has consistently found:
- Britain has low social mobility compared to other developed countries
- Those from professional backgrounds are 80% more likely to end up in professional jobs than those from working-class backgrounds
- Geography matters — social mobility is lowest in remote rural and coastal areas and some inner cities
- Elite occupations (law, medicine, journalism, finance) remain dominated by privately educated graduates despite private schools educating only 7% of pupils
- "Postcode lottery" — where you grow up strongly influences your life chances
Factors Affecting Social Mobility
Education
Education is often seen as the main engine of social mobility:
- Qualifications open doors to professional careers
- The expansion of higher education has increased absolute mobility
- But the class gap in educational achievement remains wide (see Education topic)
- Bourdieu (1984) — middle-class cultural capital gives an advantage that money alone cannot buy
- Elite universities (Oxbridge, Russell Group) are disproportionately attended by privately educated students
Family and Social Capital
- Social capital — "who you know" matters as much as "what you know"
- Middle-class families provide networks, work experience opportunities, unpaid internships (which exclude those who cannot afford to work for free), knowledge of how to navigate institutions
- Lareau (2003) — middle-class parenting style ("concerted cultivation" — structured activities, reasoning, advocacy) gives children advantages over working-class parenting style ("natural growth" — more freedom but less institutional preparation)
Wealth and Inheritance
- Inherited wealth is the biggest barrier to mobility — the wealthy pass on property, investments, school fees and connections
- Piketty (2014) — when the return on capital (investments, property) exceeds economic growth, wealth concentrates and inequality widens; inherited wealth matters more than earned income
- The "Bank of Mum and Dad" — parental help with house deposits, university fees and living costs gives middle-class young people a significant head start
Discrimination
- Gender, ethnicity and disability continue to affect life chances independently of class
- Intersectionality — a working-class Black woman faces compounded disadvantages
- Glass ceilings operate in most elite professions
Life Chances — A Summary
| Area | How class affects life chances |
|---|---|
| Health | Working-class people die younger (up to 10 years less life expectancy); higher rates of chronic illness, obesity, mental health problems; Marmot Review (2010) — health inequalities follow a "social gradient" — the poorer you are, the worse your health |
| Education | FSM pupils are half as likely to achieve top GCSE grades; class is the strongest predictor of achievement; working-class pupils are under-represented at elite universities |
| Employment | Those from professional backgrounds are far more likely to enter professional jobs; unpaid internships, networks and "polish" (accent, confidence) favour the middle class |
| Housing | Working-class families are more likely to rent, live in overcrowded or poor-quality housing, and be affected by homelessness |
| Crime and justice | Working-class people are more likely to be victims of crime, stopped and searched, and imprisoned |
| Political power | 65% of Cabinet ministers and 29% of MPs attended private school; working-class voices are under-represented in politics and policy-making |
Perspectives on Social Mobility
Functionalism
- Social mobility proves that society is meritocratic — talent rises to the top
- Davis and Moore (1945) — unequal rewards motivate ambition and effort
- Education provides the ladder for upward mobility
Evaluation: ignores the role of inherited wealth, cultural capital and discrimination; relative mobility has barely changed.
Marxism
- True social mobility under capitalism is an illusion — the class structure reproduces itself
- Absolute mobility (more middle-class jobs) does not mean the system is fair — it means the job structure changed
- The ruling class passes on wealth, power and privilege through inheritance, private education and social networks
- Bowles and Gintis (1976) — education reproduces class inequality through the myth of meritocracy
The New Right
- Social mobility is the individual's responsibility — hard work and ambition are the key
- The welfare state creates dependency that traps people in poverty
- Policy solutions: reduce benefits, promote marriage, expand academies and free schools
Social Democratic View
- The state should actively promote mobility through progressive taxation, comprehensive education, affordable childcare, and investment in deprived areas
- Nordic model — countries like Denmark and Sweden have higher mobility because they invest heavily in public services and have lower inequality
Is Britain Becoming More or Less Mobile?
Arguments for more mobility:
- More university graduates than ever before
- Women's educational and career achievements have improved dramatically
- Legal protections against discrimination (Equality Act 2010)
- The occupational structure continues to shift towards professional jobs
Arguments for less mobility (or stagnation):
- Relative mobility has barely changed in 50 years
- Housing costs make it harder for young people to accumulate wealth
- Unpaid internships and the "Bank of Mum and Dad" favour the already-privileged
- The gig economy and zero-hours contracts create insecurity at the bottom
- Blanden et al. (2005) — Britain's social mobility actually declined between the 1958 and 1970 birth cohorts
- Private education remains a powerful engine of class reproduction
Exam Technique
For a social mobility question, always distinguish between absolute and relative mobility — this is where many students lose marks. Use Goldthorpe's 1:2:4 rule and the Social Mobility Commission's findings. Present at least two perspectives (functionalist meritocracy vs Marxist reproduction). Conclude with a balanced judgement about whether Britain is truly a meritocratic society — most evidence suggests it is not, despite improvements in absolute mobility.